What is Forensic Toxicology?

Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology along with a few other disciples like analytical, pharmacology, chemistry and clinical chemistry in medico-legal investigations of death, poisoning and drug use. The main aim of forensic toxicology is the technology and the techniques that are used in obtaining and interpreting the results. This field of toxicology is not too concerned with the legal outcome of the investigation. As per the American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT) the field of forensic toxicology includes the measurement of alcohol, drugs and other toxic substances in the biological specimens along with the interpretation of the results in medico-legal contexts.

There are many areas of specialty within the field of forensic toxicology the main field being the postmortem toxicology. The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) emphasizes on the fact that the field of forensic toxicology is very collaborative in nature as a forensic toxicologist is often working in conjunction with law enforcement officers, forensic pathologists, forensic scientists and other crime scene investigators.

The detection of the drugs and other toxic substances present in the biological samples are determined first by an initial screening and then a further confirmation of the right compound and the quantification of the compound. Both the screening and the confirmation are done using different analytical methods.

Forensic Toxicology – Samples

It is necessary that every analytical method in forensic toxicology is carefully tested with a pre-forming validation of the method to ensure the correct and indisputable results each time. A testing laboratory involved in forensic pathology has to adhere to some strict policies to ensure the best possible results and safety of every individual.

The choice of method for investigation and testing mainly depends on what substance is suspected and the type of sample used for testing. In biological samples, many complex factors like the matrix effect, metabolism and conjugation of compounds have to be considerer. Forensic toxicology also aims at finding out the compound statistics of the substances along with their concentrations.

Here is a list and description of some of the samples that are taken from the biological specimens for investigations:

* Urine: The urine samples provide quick and easy results for live subjects. It is most commonly used for drug testing in employees and athletes. The urine samples provide the added advantage that they do not necessarily reflect the toxic substances the the subject is under at the time of collection.
* Blood: A quantity of 10 cubic centimeter of blood is required to screen and confirm the presence of most toxic substances. Unlike the urine samples, the blood sample screen provides the list of toxic substances present in the subject’s body at the time of collection and is hence ideal for testing the blood alcohol content in drunken driving cases.
* Oral Fluid: The layman term for oral fluid is saliva. However, oral fluid is a more appropriate term as saliva is only a component of the oral fluid. The concentration of the toxic substances present in the oral fluid is in parallel to that of the blood. The use of oral fluids is gaining prominence in the fields of clinical settings and drunken driving cases.
* Hair: The hair is an important sample in the field of forensic toxicology as it is capable of providing information about medium to long term history of drug abuse. This is because the chemicals in the bloodstream are transferred to the hair follicle via which a rough timeline regarding the intake of drugs can be deduced. As the hair grows at approximately 1.5 centimeters per month, the cross section of the hair at different intervals will give a rough estimate of when the drug was ingested.

There are many other body fluids and body organs that are collected during an autopsy provide information that will be very vital to a forensic toxicologist. The common autopsy sample is the gastric contents of the subject that is very useful in the detection of undigested pills or liquids that were ingested just before the death. This sample is however not useful in highly decomposed bodies. Some of the other body parts that are used are the vitreous humor of the eye, brain, liver and the spleen.

What is Forensic Toxicology?

Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology along with a few other disciples like analytical, pharmacology, chemistry and clinical chemistry in medico-legal investigations of death, poisoning and drug use. The main aim of forensic toxicology is the technology and the techniques that are used in obtaining and interpreting the results. This field of toxicology is not too concerned with the legal outcome of the investigation. As per the American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT) the field of forensic toxicology includes the measurement of alcohol, drugs and other toxic substances in the biological specimens along with the interpretation of the results in medico-legal contexts.

There are many areas of specialty within the field of forensic toxicology the main field being the postmortem toxicology. The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) emphasizes on the fact that the field of forensic toxicology is very collaborative in nature as a forensic toxicologist is often working in conjunction with law enforcement officers, forensic pathologists, forensic scientists and other crime scene investigators.

The detection of the drugs and other toxic substances present in the biological samples are determined first by an initial screening and then a further confirmation of the right compound and the quantification of the compound. Both the screening and the confirmation are done using different analytical methods.

Forensic Toxicology – Samples

It is necessary that every analytical method in forensic toxicology is carefully tested with a pre-forming validation of the method to ensure the correct and indisputable results each time. A testing laboratory involved in forensic pathology has to adhere to some strict policies to ensure the best possible results and safety of every individual.

The choice of method for investigation and testing mainly depends on what substance is suspected and the type of sample used for testing. In biological samples, many complex factors like the matrix effect, metabolism and conjugation of compounds have to be considerer. Forensic toxicology also aims at finding out the compound statistics of the substances along with their concentrations.

Here is a list and description of some of the samples that are taken from the biological specimens for investigations:

* Urine: The urine samples provide quick and easy results for live subjects. It is most commonly used for drug testing in employees and athletes. The urine samples provide the added advantage that they do not necessarily reflect the toxic substances the the subject is under at the time of collection.
* Blood: A quantity of 10 cubic centimeter of blood is required to screen and confirm the presence of most toxic substances. Unlike the urine samples, the blood sample screen provides the list of toxic substances present in the subject’s body at the time of collection and is hence ideal for testing the blood alcohol content in drunken driving cases.
* Oral Fluid: The layman term for oral fluid is saliva. However, oral fluid is a more appropriate term as saliva is only a component of the oral fluid. The concentration of the toxic substances present in the oral fluid is in parallel to that of the blood. The use of oral fluids is gaining prominence in the fields of clinical settings and drunken driving cases.
* Hair: The hair is an important sample in the field of forensic toxicology as it is capable of providing information about medium to long term history of drug abuse. This is because the chemicals in the bloodstream are transferred to the hair follicle via which a rough timeline regarding the intake of drugs can be deduced. As the hair grows at approximately 1.5 centimeters per month, the cross section of the hair at different intervals will give a rough estimate of when the drug was ingested.

There are many other body fluids and body organs that are collected during an autopsy provide information that will be very vital to a forensic toxicologist. The common autopsy sample is the gastric contents of the subject that is very useful in the detection of undigested pills or liquids that were ingested just before the death. This sample is however not useful in highly decomposed bodies. Some of the other body parts that are used are the vitreous humor of the eye, brain, liver and the spleen.

Go to any search engine and type in the words “performance-enhancing drugs”. It will list hundreds of websites where you can learn about what to take, how to avoid being caught and even how to buy banned substances by mail order.

Where once getting hold of illegal anabolic steroids meant visiting a dodgy gym in a bad area of town, now it is as quick and simple as ordering the latest Harry Potter book.

You want the EPO you keep reading they are using in the Tour de France? No problem. Like to try some human growth hormone which the world’s top sprinters are rumoured to be taking? Easy. Fancy some anabolic steroids to help build up your pecs? Enter your credit card number and we will ship them to your home address.

This week’s case concerning the Great Britain rugby league international Keiron Cunningham is only the latest in a series of drug scandals involving some of the biggest names in sport. The man rated the best hooker in the world joins a long list of iconic stars to have been implicated in a doping controversy.

If past history is any guide, however, the biggest winner will probably be the manufacturer of HCG, the drug for which Cunningham tested positive after it was given to him without his knowledge.

“We couldn’t ship the stuff out of the warehouse quick enough after all the publicity involving British athletes and [the anabolic steroid] nandrolone a couple of years ago,” said a salesman for one company, who wished to remain anonymous.

“People suddenly thought it was a magic elixir. It is the same with EPO and the Tour. We don’t stock it because it’s a prescribed drug, but if we did we would make literally millions judging by the number of inquiries we get about it. Sunday cyclists seem to think it’s going to turn them into a world champion overnight.”

Although most are banned in Britain and by the International Olympic Committee, hundreds of these performance-enhancing substances are just a mouse-click away on the internet, which has made them more readily available than ever.

Some are relatively harmless, others can have serious effects on a competitor’s reputation and health.

One of the leading drug advice sites on the internet, for example, warns of the dangers of taking HCG. It could lead to “reinforcing already existing breast growth in men” and “mood swings and high blood pressure”.

At a press conference in London tomorrow, UK Sport’s head of drug-free sport, Michele Verroken, will announce the results of the latest drugs tests for the quarter ended June 30 2003. There will be details of competitors who thought they could outwit the dope-busters, failed and were caught.

Much more worryingly, there will not be any information on those who thought they could get away with it and succeeded. For the drug war is a race where the cheats always try to stay one step ahead of the authorities.

Today, the industry is increasingly hi-tech: a complex, super-specialised smorgasbord of “designer” drugs. The relative few cases in Britain involving HCG – Cunningham is among only a handful to have tested positive for the drug – may make it seem to be the cutting edge of doping technology.

In fact, those in the know already consider it passé and are now using another drug, clomid, which offers the same benefits but is harder to detect.

Another example of how the cheats can steal a march on the dope-busters came during the 2000 Sydney Olympics when there were rumours some competitors were using an anabolic steroid called ganabol, which the IOC did not have a test for.

Scientists were baffled because the drug had been discarded by laboratories years earlier on account of its high toxicity. But in clinical tests in 1967 involving rats, ganabol had been shown to develop huge muscle growth, making it attractive to competitors in the power events such as swimming and sprinting.

The fact that some athletes had been using it was confirmed in 2001 by Charlie Francis, Ben Johnson’s former coach, when he wrote about ganabol in an article for Testosterone Magazine.

“This drug was brought to the attention of the drug testers in 1984, but as it wasn’t in commercial production a test wasn’t developed for it,” Francis wrote.

“Once athletes became aware of this loophole, a market quickly developed for the drug … By the time a test was developed, the word was out and the athletes moved on to other products.”

Ganabol is generally considered to be among the first of what are known as designer steroids, where the drug has its chemical structures modified so it is undetectable in urine tests but maintains its performance-enhancing qualities.

In his 2001 article, Francis claimed clandestine labs around the world were already working on finding the next designer drug that cannot be detected in time for the 2004 Athens Olympics. Few doubt they have succeeded.

The top names may have moved on but coming behind them will probably be a whole lot of eager new customers, armed with a computer, access to the internet, a credit card and warped sense of ambition, only too willing to click on for the chance to emulate their tainted idols.

How to abuse the system

HCG

What it’s for: to treat infertility in males. Found in pregnant females.

What athletes use it for: to increase testosterone. To help them recover from injury.

Human gene therapy

What it is used for: to develop new body parts for transplants. What athletes use it for: not on the market yet but set to be the next big thing. Athletes already looking for the formula.

EPO

What it’s for: to treat seriously ill kidney patients.

What athletes use it for: to boost oxygen-carrying red blood cells and increase stamina.

Human growth hormone

What it is used for: to treat underdeveloped children.

What athletes use it for: to increase muscle mass and strength. Very popular because it is almost undetectable.

Pre employment testing is commonly used by employers to screen out unsuitable job applicants. In the United States more than 30% of companies reportedly use pre-employment tests to help make hiring decisions. Used in conjunction with the interview process employment testing enables the employer to pin-point any areas of concern with regard to the applicant’s ability and suitability for the position. A valid and reliable pre employment evaluation is objective and a good tool for ensuring that the final employment selection is based on the applicant’s ability to successfully perform in the job and not on any prejudice, bias or assumption.

There are many different types of pre employment tests but the most frequently used tests fall into these five categories – personality tests, skills tests, aptitude tests, integrity tests and drug tests.

Personality Tests

Personality tests measure the personality characteristics of job applicants that are related to successful job performance. Typically they measure one or more of five personality dimensions: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. The test format can vary from a brief written test to a long psychological examination. Personality tests have no “right” answers and cannot be prepared for. Applicants should answer honestly and not attempt to manipulate their answers to fit what they think the employer wants for two reasons. Firstly the tests contain validity scales that are designed to detect inconsistent and fake answers. This will be viewed as dishonest by prospective employers. Secondly applicants are misleading both themselves and the employer about their suitability for the job and are unlikely to be either happy or successful in the position.

Skills Tests

This is perhaps the most common type of pre employment testing. Applicants are required to demonstrate the skills needed for the job and confirm the job-related skills they say they have. Skills tests can range from a simple typing test, writing a report, lifting a heavy object to a complicated mechanical design. Some skills tests can be prepared for. Know which skills you will require on the job and practice these. Practice tests for typing and computer skills are available online.

Skills tests are considered acceptable if they genuinely test a skill needed for the job.

Aptitude Tests

These employment tests explore an applicant’s abilities such as reasoning, numerical, wiring or verbal skills. They differ from skills tests in that they are used to determine an applicant’s ability to learn and be trained in the required skills for the job while a skills test assesses existing skill levels.

Aptitude tests will tell an employer how quickly an applicant may be expected to learn to do the job tasks to a satisfactory level. There are general aptitude test referred to as IQ or intelligence tests and also tests for specific aptitudes such as mechanical aptitude.

Integrity Tests

Dishonesty in the workplace is a business reality. An integrity test explores an applicant’s honesty and trustworthiness. Questions are designed to evaluate the applicant’s attitude to drug and alcohol abuse, abuse of company resources such as phones, internet, email and vehicles, the confidentiality of company information and data, the stealing of company property such as stationery, telling “white lies”, and the approach to work ethic criteria such as time keeping and taking breaks.

Pre Employment Drug Test

The US Department of Labor has estimated that drug use in the workplace costs employers up to $100 billion dollars annually in lost work time, accidents, health care costs and workers compensation costs. As a result a large number of employers require applicants to have a drug test as part of their pre employment testing process.

An employer can have a program for testing job applicants for drug usage as long as it is administered fairly and consistently and is in line with federal and state laws. The laws concerning employment drug screening vary from state to state and some states require that employers may only test applicants once they have been formally offered a position conditional on a negative drug test.

The most common drug tests involve applicants going to a collection site where a urine sample is obtained and then sent to a certified laboratory for analysis. The standard drug test is called a “Five-Screen” and tests for 5 types of street drugs – marijuana, cocaine, PCP (Phencylidine), opiates such as heroin and morphine, and amphetamines. Urine drug testing is popular with employers because it is reliable, inexpensive and non- intrusive. Test results are usually available within 24 to 48 hours. Other testing methods such as hair testing, blood tests, breath tests and saliva testing are also used.

Job applicants are likely to be required to undergo some form of pre employment testing. Although the amount of preparation that can be done for these tests is limited it will benefit applicants greatly to understand the type of tests they can expect.

More about career personality tests

Alcohol detox at home can be done, but never by yourself. There must be medical oversight because everyone’s withdrawal symptoms are different and unknown until they are into the process itself. In-home detox is not set up to handle patients who are at risk for seizures or strokes. Most programs will only allow low-risk, relatively healthy patients to attempt detox at home.

All patients are overseen by medical staff. Someone is always at the patient’s home during the detox process, which can last anywhere from three to seven days. Depending on the home detox program, the person who stays with the recovering alcoholic could be a friend or family member, with the medical personnel making daily visits and always available by phone. Other detox programs have the medical personnel staying at your home.

Home detox is much less expensive than in-patient detox. Rather than paying for your share of a stay in a treatment facility as well as keep your home operating, you’re just paying for your home, like normal.

Each person is evaluated for their suitability for in-home detox from alcohol before this program starts. There are usually questionnaires and/or interviews. At that point the addict’s suitability for in-home detox from alcohol will be determined. A plan for healthy, safe and effective detox will be prepared and discussed with the patient.

There are many products on the internet promising virtual “detox in a box” or “all-natural detox at home”. However, none of these are recommended by physicians. In fact, they’re primarily set up to help people using drugs or alcohol pass drug screening by employers and others. If you can find these products on the internet, don’t you think they employers can, too?

In-home alcohol detoxification can also be used before an inpatient or outpatient treatment program begins. When the individual arrives at the treatment facility, the recovery phase can begin straightaway.

During the in-home alcohol detox, a medical professional, usually a nurse, will arrive at your house. They usually wear street clothes, so as far as your neighbors are concerned, you just have a friend visiting. The medical expert will have already seen your evaluation and will have come prepared to treat you according to your special needs.

Medications are administered, vital signs checked, and the detoxification process has begun. For the detox to be most effective, it must be followed up by recovery. Many of the medical staff who guide the recovering alcoholic through the home detox process will also begin the long-term recovery process at the same time.

Alcohol detox is the first step in the recovery process. Detoxing at home, under medical supervision, can be a safe and confidential method of beginning a new life of sobriety. But even at home, it’s critical that the alcohol detox process only be done under competent medical supervision.